Last reviewed: 14 June 2026

Terms such as low, medium, high and excellent are comparative indicators for course use. Actual performance and cost depend on waveform, equipment, licensing, geography, loading, resilience design and local regulation.

Filter by role

System	Best for	Capacity	Range	Reliability	Main caveat
Public-Switched Telephone Network InfrastructureFixedLegacy	Fixed voice and basic access where maintained; increasingly a legacy access concept rather than a modern standalone network. More detail Initial cost Very low to user Operating cost Legacy voice can be low cost; always-on data is usually provided as broadband/VoIP with fixed monthly pricing. Frequency / bearer bandwidth Legacy voice: 300-3400 Hz. Modern fixed access may use copper, fibre, HFC, fixed wireless or satellite. Antenna size Not applicable Training Minimal	Legacy dial-up: up to 56 kbps. Digital voice: typically 64 kbps per G.711 channel. Modern fixed access: Mbps to Gbps.	Where fixed network access is available; increasingly delivered via fibre, VoIP, cellular or satellite rather than legacy copper PSTN.	Excellent where maintained	Legacy PSTN wording can mislead readers because many services are now delivered over IP or mixed access technologies.
HF Radio BLOSFallbackMobile	Beyond-line-of-sight and fallback communications where infrastructure is absent, degraded or deliberately avoided. More detail Initial cost Moderate; depends on range desired Operating cost Low to moderate Frequency / bearer bandwidth 3-30 MHz; channel bandwidth commonly around 3 kHz, with wider military/data waveforms where allocated. Antenna size Depends on frequency and directivity; often large for efficient fixed installations. Training Can be extensive; modern adaptive frequency control and automatic link establishment reduce operator burden.	Typically hundreds of bit/s to several kbit/s for narrowband HF data; higher rates are possible with modern modems under favourable conditions.	Typically 3,500 km for single hop; worldwide coverage possible using multihop propagation.	Poor to moderate; highly dependent on ionospheric conditions, interference and antenna installation.	Performance varies sharply with time of day, season, solar activity, interference and antenna quality.
VHF Radio MobileLocalVoice	Local and regional mobile voice with low-rate data, especially where simple field operation matters. More detail Initial cost Low to moderate Operating cost Low Frequency / bearer bandwidth 30-300 MHz Antenna size Small, but fixed coverage often needs elevated antennas or towers. Training Minimal to moderate	Voice plus low-rate data; many land-mobile systems support roughly 4.8-19.2 kbit/s class data depending on waveform and channel spacing.	Typically 50-200 km, terrain and antenna-height dependent; repeaters extend coverage.	Moderate to good with planned coverage and repeater support.	Coverage and networking capability depend heavily on repeater sites, terrain and the specific radio system.
Microwave InfrastructureHigh capacityBackhaul	Fixed backhaul, private networks and rapid deployment where fibre is costly, slow or impractical. More detail Initial cost High Operating cost Moderate to high Frequency / bearer bandwidth Licensed fixed microwave commonly uses bands from about 6-42 GHz; E-band/mmWave links use higher bands such as 70/80 GHz. Antenna size Small to moderate parabolic antennas; usually mounted on towers, rooftops or masts with clear line of sight. Training Specialist planning, alignment and maintenance required; little end-user training.	High: Mbps to multi-Gbps depending on bandwidth, modulation, path length and equipment.	Typically line-of-sight; often tens of kilometres per hop. Long routes require relay sites.	Good when engineered with adequate path clearance, fade margin, diversity and power backup.	Fibre is preferred where available; microwave remains useful but needs line-of-sight engineering and spectrum coordination.
Meteor Burst BLOSNicheLow rate	Niche low-rate store-and-forward messaging where intermittent delay is acceptable. More detail Initial cost Moderate Operating cost Low to moderate Frequency / bearer bandwidth Typically 30-50 MHz Antenna size Small to moderate Training Operator training can be minimal once installed.	Low-rate, intermittent store-and-forward communications; often hundreds of bit/s to a few kbit/s depending on system design.	Up to about 2,000 km; distance can be extended by relaying.	Can be high for short messages if properly designed, but delay and availability vary.	Not real-time; messages wait for suitable meteor trails, causing delays from seconds to minutes or longer.
Troposcatter BLOSInfrastructureResilient	Specialist beyond-line-of-sight links where satellite is unavailable, undesirable or constrained. More detail Initial cost High Operating cost High Frequency / bearer bandwidth Commonly UHF/SHF and microwave bands; exact bands depend on regulator, equipment and mission. Antenna size Large fixed antennas may be used; modern transportable systems commonly use smaller parabolic antennas sized for path and data rate. Training High	Modern digital/IP systems range from a few Mbit/s to tens of Mbit/s depending on path, bandwidth, antennas and required availability.	Beyond line of sight; commonly 100-500 km per path, with longer paths possible under suitable conditions.	Good to very good when engineered for path loss, fading, diversity and availability.	High-power and specialist; not a casual-access communications method.
Optical Fibre InfrastructureHigh capacityFixed	High-capacity communications between fixed sites, including terrestrial and submarine networks. More detail Initial cost High Operating cost Medium Frequency / bearer bandwidth Common optical windows include 1310 nm and 1550 nm; WDM uses multiple wavelengths across standard optical bands. Antenna size Not applicable Training Minimal for users; specialist skills for splicing, testing and restoration.	Very high: Gbps to Tbps per fibre pair depending on optics, WDM system and reach.	Where fibre has been deployed; global reach is achieved through terrestrial and submarine fibre networks with amplification/regeneration as needed.	Excellent	Vulnerable to physical cable cuts without route diversity.
Satellite BLOSRemoteMobile	Remote-area, rapid-deployment and wide-area coverage where terrestrial infrastructure is unavailable or insufficient. More detail Initial cost High Operating cost Medium to high Frequency / bearer bandwidth Multiple bands including L, S, C, X, Ku and Ka; some services operate below 3 GHz, while many fixed broadband/VSAT services use Ku/Ka. Antenna size Varies widely: handheld/mobile terminals, VSATs, flat-panel antennas and large gateways all exist. Training Can range from minimal for managed terminals to extensive for network/gateway operations.	Variable: low-rate IoT/voice through broadband Mbps services to high-throughput links; shared capacity depends on satellite, beam and terminal.	Within beam footprint. GEO satellites cover a large part of Earth except high latitudes; LEO/MEO constellations use moving footprints and handover.	Generally high with redundancy; affected by blockage, weather fade, interference, gateway outages and satellite/constellation design.	Consider latency, capacity contention, terminal pointing/tracking, weather fade and resilience design.
Cellular / Mobile Networks MobileInfrastructureHigh capacity	Public mobile voice and broadband where operator coverage, power and backhaul are available. More detail Initial cost High infrastructure cost; low to moderate user equipment cost Operating cost Medium; depends on subscription, roaming and data usage Frequency / bearer bandwidth Uses regional/operator bands: low-band below 1 GHz, mid-band around 1-7 GHz and mmWave around 24-40+ GHz. Legacy GSM/3G bands are being refarmed. Antenna size Base station: small to large panels/arrays; mobile/IoT devices use compact internal antennas. Training Low for users; high for RF planning, operations and core-network engineering.	LTE: Mbps to hundreds of Mbps; LTE-A/Gigabit LTE can reach Gbit/s-class peaks. 5G IMT-2020 target peak is 20 Gbit/s downlink and 10 Gbit/s uplink; real rates are coverage- and load-dependent.	Cellular coverage area; cell radius varies from small cells to tens of kilometres depending on band, terrain, load and antenna height.	Excellent in well-covered areas; depends on power, backhaul, coverage, congestion and disaster hardening.	2G/3G are legacy and have been shut down in many countries, including Australia. Current public mobile networks are mainly 4G LTE and 5G NR, with VoLTE required for voice on many networks.

Public-Switched Telephone Network

Fixed voice and basic access where maintained; increasingly a legacy access concept rather than a modern standalone network.

CapacityLegacy dial-up: up to 56 kbps. Digital voice: typically 64 kbps per G.711 channel. Modern fixed access: Mbps to Gbps.

RangeWhere fixed network access is available; increasingly delivered via fibre, VoIP, cellular or satellite rather than legacy copper PSTN.

ReliabilityExcellent where maintained

Main caveatLegacy PSTN wording can mislead readers because many services are now delivered over IP or mixed access technologies.

Cost, spectrum and training

Initial cost: Very low to user
Operating cost: Legacy voice can be low cost; always-on data is usually provided as broadband/VoIP with fixed monthly pricing.
Frequency / bearer bandwidth: Legacy voice: 300-3400 Hz. Modern fixed access may use copper, fibre, HFC, fixed wireless or satellite.
Antenna size: Not applicable
Training: Minimal

HF Radio

Beyond-line-of-sight and fallback communications where infrastructure is absent, degraded or deliberately avoided.

CapacityTypically hundreds of bit/s to several kbit/s for narrowband HF data; higher rates are possible with modern modems under favourable conditions.

RangeTypically 3,500 km for single hop; worldwide coverage possible using multihop propagation.

ReliabilityPoor to moderate; highly dependent on ionospheric conditions, interference and antenna installation.

Main caveatPerformance varies sharply with time of day, season, solar activity, interference and antenna quality.

Cost, spectrum and training

Initial cost: Moderate; depends on range desired
Operating cost: Low to moderate
Frequency / bearer bandwidth: 3-30 MHz; channel bandwidth commonly around 3 kHz, with wider military/data waveforms where allocated.
Antenna size: Depends on frequency and directivity; often large for efficient fixed installations.
Training: Can be extensive; modern adaptive frequency control and automatic link establishment reduce operator burden.

VHF Radio

Local and regional mobile voice with low-rate data, especially where simple field operation matters.

CapacityVoice plus low-rate data; many land-mobile systems support roughly 4.8-19.2 kbit/s class data depending on waveform and channel spacing.

RangeTypically 50-200 km, terrain and antenna-height dependent; repeaters extend coverage.

ReliabilityModerate to good with planned coverage and repeater support.

Main caveatCoverage and networking capability depend heavily on repeater sites, terrain and the specific radio system.

Cost, spectrum and training

Initial cost: Low to moderate
Operating cost: Low
Frequency / bearer bandwidth: 30-300 MHz
Antenna size: Small, but fixed coverage often needs elevated antennas or towers.
Training: Minimal to moderate

Microwave

Fixed backhaul, private networks and rapid deployment where fibre is costly, slow or impractical.

CapacityHigh: Mbps to multi-Gbps depending on bandwidth, modulation, path length and equipment.

RangeTypically line-of-sight; often tens of kilometres per hop. Long routes require relay sites.

ReliabilityGood when engineered with adequate path clearance, fade margin, diversity and power backup.

Main caveatFibre is preferred where available; microwave remains useful but needs line-of-sight engineering and spectrum coordination.

Cost, spectrum and training

Initial cost: High
Operating cost: Moderate to high
Frequency / bearer bandwidth: Licensed fixed microwave commonly uses bands from about 6-42 GHz; E-band/mmWave links use higher bands such as 70/80 GHz.
Antenna size: Small to moderate parabolic antennas; usually mounted on towers, rooftops or masts with clear line of sight.
Training: Specialist planning, alignment and maintenance required; little end-user training.

Meteor Burst

Niche low-rate store-and-forward messaging where intermittent delay is acceptable.

CapacityLow-rate, intermittent store-and-forward communications; often hundreds of bit/s to a few kbit/s depending on system design.

RangeUp to about 2,000 km; distance can be extended by relaying.

ReliabilityCan be high for short messages if properly designed, but delay and availability vary.

Main caveatNot real-time; messages wait for suitable meteor trails, causing delays from seconds to minutes or longer.

Cost, spectrum and training

Initial cost: Moderate
Operating cost: Low to moderate
Frequency / bearer bandwidth: Typically 30-50 MHz
Antenna size: Small to moderate
Training: Operator training can be minimal once installed.

Troposcatter

Specialist beyond-line-of-sight links where satellite is unavailable, undesirable or constrained.

CapacityModern digital/IP systems range from a few Mbit/s to tens of Mbit/s depending on path, bandwidth, antennas and required availability.

RangeBeyond line of sight; commonly 100-500 km per path, with longer paths possible under suitable conditions.

ReliabilityGood to very good when engineered for path loss, fading, diversity and availability.

Main caveatHigh-power and specialist; not a casual-access communications method.

Cost, spectrum and training

Initial cost: High
Operating cost: High
Frequency / bearer bandwidth: Commonly UHF/SHF and microwave bands; exact bands depend on regulator, equipment and mission.
Antenna size: Large fixed antennas may be used; modern transportable systems commonly use smaller parabolic antennas sized for path and data rate.
Training: High

Optical Fibre

High-capacity communications between fixed sites, including terrestrial and submarine networks.

CapacityVery high: Gbps to Tbps per fibre pair depending on optics, WDM system and reach.

RangeWhere fibre has been deployed; global reach is achieved through terrestrial and submarine fibre networks with amplification/regeneration as needed.

ReliabilityExcellent

Main caveatVulnerable to physical cable cuts without route diversity.

Cost, spectrum and training

Initial cost: High
Operating cost: Medium
Frequency / bearer bandwidth: Common optical windows include 1310 nm and 1550 nm; WDM uses multiple wavelengths across standard optical bands.
Antenna size: Not applicable
Training: Minimal for users; specialist skills for splicing, testing and restoration.

Satellite

Remote-area, rapid-deployment and wide-area coverage where terrestrial infrastructure is unavailable or insufficient.

CapacityVariable: low-rate IoT/voice through broadband Mbps services to high-throughput links; shared capacity depends on satellite, beam and terminal.

RangeWithin beam footprint. GEO satellites cover a large part of Earth except high latitudes; LEO/MEO constellations use moving footprints and handover.

ReliabilityGenerally high with redundancy; affected by blockage, weather fade, interference, gateway outages and satellite/constellation design.

Main caveatConsider latency, capacity contention, terminal pointing/tracking, weather fade and resilience design.

Cost, spectrum and training

Initial cost: High
Operating cost: Medium to high
Frequency / bearer bandwidth: Multiple bands including L, S, C, X, Ku and Ka; some services operate below 3 GHz, while many fixed broadband/VSAT services use Ku/Ka.
Antenna size: Varies widely: handheld/mobile terminals, VSATs, flat-panel antennas and large gateways all exist.
Training: Can range from minimal for managed terminals to extensive for network/gateway operations.

Cellular / Mobile Networks

Public mobile voice and broadband where operator coverage, power and backhaul are available.

CapacityLTE: Mbps to hundreds of Mbps; LTE-A/Gigabit LTE can reach Gbit/s-class peaks. 5G IMT-2020 target peak is 20 Gbit/s downlink and 10 Gbit/s uplink; real rates are coverage- and load-dependent.

RangeCellular coverage area; cell radius varies from small cells to tens of kilometres depending on band, terrain, load and antenna height.

ReliabilityExcellent in well-covered areas; depends on power, backhaul, coverage, congestion and disaster hardening.

Main caveat2G/3G are legacy and have been shut down in many countries, including Australia. Current public mobile networks are mainly 4G LTE and 5G NR, with VoLTE required for voice on many networks.

Cost, spectrum and training

Initial cost: High infrastructure cost; low to moderate user equipment cost
Operating cost: Medium; depends on subscription, roaming and data usage
Frequency / bearer bandwidth: Uses regional/operator bands: low-band below 1 GHz, mid-band around 1-7 GHz and mmWave around 24-40+ GHz. Legacy GSM/3G bands are being refarmed.
Antenna size: Base station: small to large panels/arrays; mobile/IoT devices use compact internal antennas.
Training: Low for users; high for RF planning, operations and core-network engineering.

Reference anchors: ITU-T G.711 for legacy digital voice coding, ITU-T G.652 for single-mode optical fibre, ITU IMT-2020 requirements for 5G peak targets, and current national regulator/operator notices for 2G/3G shutdown status. Re-check country-specific mobile and spectrum details before publishing operational guidance.

Comparison of Communications Systems

Public-Switched Telephone Network

HF Radio

VHF Radio

Microwave

Meteor Burst

Troposcatter

Optical Fibre

Satellite

Cellular / Mobile Networks

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